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Many Types of Peace Treaties
Many Types of Peace Treaties
J. Bjørnar Storfjell, Ph.D.
Professor of Archaeology and History of Antiquity
Treaties generally result from negotiations which clarify the principles and foundations of the resulting relationship. We tend to distinguish between a treaty and a covenant. The former relates to a political situation whereas the latter relates to a religious or cultic situation. These are distinctions which were unknown in the Ancient Near East. Consequently, there are numerous discussions in the biblical text about covenants—283 to be exact—but no reference to treaties. The treaty and the covenant are synonymous and resulted from negotiations. Even when the covenant or treaty was the direct result of military conquest, the concept of negotiation is not totally absent. The vanquished always had to accept the terms offered, and this acceptance is a form of negotiation. Most frequently, however, treaties were not the result of military exploits but mutual recognition of each other’s desire to coexist peacefully.
This brief essay on the topic of the peace treaty—berit shalom— will take a look at five types of treaty situations which can be demonstrated from implicit references to ancient peace treaties which involved Israel. Only one example will be referred to in each of the five categories.
1. Suzerain-Vassal Treaty.
In the ancient tradition, during the very establishing of the nation of Israel, this kind of treaty was entered into with the inhabitants of the city state of Gibeon. The story is located in Joshua 9 and 10. Through deceit the inhabitants of Gibeon, located in the hill country nearly ten kilometers (six miles) to the northwest of Jerusalem, tricked the Israelites into establishing a peace treaty. The discovery of the real situation of the Gibeonites changed this agreement into a suzerain- vassal treaty in which the Gibeonites became subservient to the Israelites. This is the characteristic feature of this type of a
treaty, a superior who dictates terms to an inferior.
2. Vassal-SuzerainTreaty.
This is exactly the same kind of a treaty as the one just described. The difference is that here Israel is the vassal who has to accept the terms offered by a more powerful suzerain. In the second half of the ninth century B.C.E., the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III crossed the Euphrates river for the sixteenth time and received tribute from, among others, King Jehu of Israel. On the so-called black obelisk Shalmaneser records, “The tribute of Jehu, son of Omri; I received from him silver, gold” and various other items.* This event is also represented by the only contemporary depiction of an Israelite king. Young Jehu is shown kneeling before the Assyrian king as he presents his tribute. The biblical record is silent regarding this event, but it is quite clear from the Assyrian records that Jehu found it more prudent to assume the role of vassal than to meet the Assyrian army on the field of battle.
3. Defensive Alliance Treaty.
King Ahab of Israel was able to reverse the balance of power with his sometimes oppressive neighbor to the northeast, Benhadad of Damascus. After the defeat and capture of Ben-hadad, Ahab appears to have entered into a mutual defensive alliance with Damascus. He undoubtedly saw the need for just such an alliance against the westward expansion of the Assyrian king, Shalmaneser III, the same king who later received tribute from Jehu, as seen above. These two long-standing enemies, Samaria and Damascus, entered into a treaty arrangement in the face of a common enemy, Assyria. This treaty was for a specific situation. As soon as the need for the alliance disappeared with the withdrawal of Assyrian troops from the west for a period of five years, Ahab disregarded the treaty with Damascus and continued his former military engagements which would cost him his life (1 Kings 20-22).
4. Diplomatic Marriage Treaty.
It was not uncommon in the Ancient Near East to conclude peace treaties with diplomatic marriages. One of the most celebrated craftsman in this art was the pharaoh Amenhotep III of the 18th dynasty. Whereas the Egyptian pharaohs were often keen on acquiring foreign princesses for their harems, they seldom allowed Egyptian princesses to become wives of foreign monarchs. It is, therefore, with great interest that we note that Solomon had received as a wife an Egyptian princess who came with a dowry in the form of the city of Gezer (1 Kings 9:16). Peace with other nations—close neighbors as well as more distant peoples—was likewise cemented with these types of marriages (1 Kings 11:1).
5. Commercial Treaty.
Early in the second millennium B.C.E., Assyria had negotiated a commercial treaty with Kanish in central Asia Minor. This treaty, as is common with commercial treaties, benefited both parties. In the biblical context, an example of this kind of treaty is found between David and Hiram. This special relationship was continued with Solomon. In the construction of the temple in Jerusalem, we see the same kind of assistance offered to Solomon as to David. “And there was peace between Hiram and Solomon; and the two of them made a treaty” (1 Kings 5:12 (RSV); 5:26 in the Hebrew Bible). This covenant (Hebrew) was a peace treaty which led to further joint enterprises between the two monarchs.
For each of these types of treaties, other examples could have been given from the biblical text. Throughout history peace has often been a goal sought by nations. At times methods of questionable moral and ethical integrity have been used in order to secure peace. How much more, when honorable methods can be used, should peace be sought! Peace must not be allowed to become an orphan in the streets of this world, much less in the modern Near East and in the streets of Jerusalem.
*Pritchard, James B., ed,, Ancient Near Eastern Text Relating to the Old Testament, 3d ed. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1969), p. 281.
Jehu of Israel before Shalmaneser III of Assyria, as depicted on the Black Obelisk now in the British Museum. Picture by J. Bjørnar Storfjell.